- India is one of the world’s richest countries in biological diversity — forests are the primary producers that every other living being depends on.
- Flora = plant life, fauna = animal life. India has about 8 per cent of the world’s recorded species.
- The IUCN classifies species as normal, endangered, vulnerable, rare, endemic and extinct — a favourite match/short-answer question.
- Main causes of depletion: colonial forestry, expansion of farmland, mining, dams, shifting cultivation, grazing and fuelwood — and these hurt the poor and tribals the most.
- Conservation: Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, Project Tiger (1973), national parks & sanctuaries, and community efforts — Chipko, Beej Bachao Andolan, sacred groves, JFM.
- Forest types by management: Reserved, Protected, Unclassed.
- Board weightage: ~3 marks/year — usually one match-the-following / MCQ plus one short or long answer on conservation.
1. Why this chapter matters — the web of life
We share this planet with millions of other living beings — from tiny micro-organisms and bacteria, lichens and banyan trees, to elephants and blue whales. All these living organisms, together with their physical surroundings, form a complex web called an ecological system (ecosystem). Humans are only one part of this system and are very much dependent on it for our own survival.
Plants, animals and micro-organisms re-create the quality of the air we breathe, the water we drink and the soil that produces our food. Without them we cannot survive. Forests are central to this system because they are the primary producers — the base on which all other life depends. So protecting forests and wildlife is not charity towards nature; it is protecting our own life-support system.
The chapter studies (a) how rich India’s biodiversity is, (b) how and why it is being depleted, and (c) how government and communities are conserving it.
2. Biodiversity, flora and fauna
Biodiversity (biological diversity) means the immense variety of life — wild and cultivated species, diverse in form and function, all linked together in a system through a multiple network of interdependencies. In simple words: the huge range of different living things and the way they all rely on one another.
Two useful words you must keep apart:
- Flora = the plant life of a region (forests, grasses, crops).
- Fauna = the animal life of a region (mammals, birds, reptiles, insects).
India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of biological diversity. It has nearly 8 per cent of the total number of species in the world (estimated at 1.6 million), and many species are still waiting to be discovered — possibly twice or thrice the number already recorded. These diverse flora and fauna are so well integrated into our daily life that we take them for granted, yet lately they are under great stress mainly due to insensitivity to our environment.
3. How species are classified — the IUCN categories
The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) classifies plant and animal species into categories according to how threatened they are. Learn these — they are very commonly asked.
Endangered species: in danger of extinction; will disappear if the causes harming them continue — e.g. black buck, crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion-tailed macaque, sangai (Manipur brow-antlered deer).
Vulnerable species: numbers have fallen to a level from which they are likely to slip into the endangered class if threats continue — e.g. blue sheep, Asiatic elephant, Gangetic dolphin.
Rare species: very small populations; may move into endangered or vulnerable if conditions worsen — e.g. Himalayan brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox, hornbill.
Endemic species: found only in a particular area, naturally isolated by physical or climatic barriers — e.g. Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, mithun (Arunachal Pradesh).
Extinct species: no longer found anywhere at all (or in the areas they once lived) — e.g. Asiatic cheetah, pink-headed duck.
Order of worsening danger: Normal → Vulnerable → Endangered → Extinct. Rare = very few in number; Endemic = found in one place only (location word, not a danger level).
4. The scale of loss — a sobering picture
Biological loss is strongly linked to the loss of cultural diversity. The forest-dependent communities, often poor and tribal, suffer the most. According to estimates, India has lost large stretches of forest cover and many species:
- The country lost much of its forest during the colonial period due to expansion of railways, agriculture, commercial and scientific forestry, and mining.
- The Asiatic cheetah — once found across India — is now extinct in the country; the world’s fastest land animal disappeared mainly due to hunting for sport.
- Even insects and plants are now part of conservation planning — in 1991 plants were added to the protected list for the first time, starting with six species.
This loss is not just an environmental problem; it threatens genetic diversity needed for agriculture, fisheries and medicine.
5. Causes of depletion of forests and wildlife
The destruction of forests and wildlife is not just a biological process — it is rooted in human activities. Major causes:
- Colonial forest policy: the British exploited forests for railway sleepers, ships and commercial timber, and encouraged clearing for plantations of tea, coffee and rubber.
- Agricultural expansion: between 1951 and 1980, over 26,200 sq km of forest was converted into agricultural land all over India. Forest land was also cleared for resettling people.
- Shifting cultivation (jhum): a form of slash-and-burn farming that, when practised over short cycles, degrades forest land — tribal areas of north-eastern and central India are examples.
- Large development projects: river-valley projects (dams) have flooded large forest tracts — e.g. the Narmada Sagar Project would inundate vast forest.
- Mining: e.g. dolomite mining in the Buxa Tiger Reserve (West Bengal) threatened the forest and the migration route of elephants.
- Grazing and fuelwood collection — though forest officials often unfairly blame the poor for this, while big interests do far more damage.
- Unequal distribution and over-consumption: the rich consume far more resources and cause much more ecological damage than the poor.
Deforestation hits the poor and women hardest: poor women have to walk longer for fuelwood, fodder and water, and the drying of forests means less of the wild produce that supports tribal livelihoods. The Himalayan Yew (a medicinal plant whose chemical ‘taxol’ treats cancer) is being over-exploited and is now under serious threat.
6. Why conserve? Conservation of forests & wildlife in India
Conservation, against a background of rapid decline, has become essential. Why conserve?
- It preserves the ecological diversity and our life-support systems — water, air and soil.
- It preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals needed for the better growth of species and for breeding. In agriculture we still depend on traditional crop varieties; fisheries depend on aquatic biodiversity.
Government response: In the 1960s and 1970s conservationists demanded a national wildlife protection programme. The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act was implemented in 1972, with provisions for protecting habitats. An all-India list of protected species was published. The thrust was to protect remaining endangered species by banning hunting, giving legal protection to their habitats and restricting trade in wildlife.
Central and state governments then set up national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. Special projects were announced for gravely threatened animals: the one-horned rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag (hangul), three types of crocodiles (freshwater, saltwater and the gharial), the Asiatic lion, and more recently the Indian elephant, black buck (chinkara), Great Indian Bustard (godawan) and the snow leopard, which now have full or partial legal protection. The focus has shifted from a few species towards conserving whole biodiversity, including butterflies, moths, beetles and even one dragonfly.
7. Project Tiger
The tiger is one of the key species of the faunal web. The tiger population had crashed: an estimated 55,000 at the turn of the twentieth century dwindled to just 1,827 by 1973. The major threats were poaching for trade, shrinking habitat, depletion of prey species and a growing human population. The trade in tiger skins and the use of their bones in traditional medicines (especially in Asian countries) pushed the tiger to the verge of extinction. Because India and Nepal hold about two-thirds of the world’s surviving tigers, both nations became prime targets for poaching and illegal trade.
“Project Tiger”, one of the best-publicised wildlife campaigns in the world, was launched in 1973. It is viewed not just as an effort to save one endangered species but also as a way of preserving biotypes (whole habitats) of sizeable magnitude.
8. Types and distribution of forests
Even when we want to conserve forests, they are hard to manage and regulate. In India much of the forest and wildlife is owned or managed by the government through the Forest Department. Forests are classified into three categories:
- (i) Reserved Forests: More than half the total forest land is reserved forest. These are regarded as the most valuable as far as conservation of forest and wildlife resources is concerned.
- (ii) Protected Forests: Almost one-third of the total forest area, as declared by the Forest Department. This forest land is protected from any further depletion.
- (iii) Unclassed Forests: These are other forests and wastelands belonging to both government and private individuals and communities.
Reserved and protected forests together are called permanent forest estates, maintained for producing timber and other forest produce and for protective reasons.
• Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under permanent forests — about 75 per cent of its total forest area.
• States with large areas of reserved forests: Jammu & Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Maharashtra.
• States with most forest under protected forests: Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan.
• All north-eastern states and parts of Gujarat have a very high percentage of their forests as unclassed forests managed by local communities.
9. Community and conservation
Conservation strategies are not new in India — local communities have long protected forests as part of their lives. Some powerful examples:
- Sariska Tiger Reserve (Rajasthan): villagers fought against mining by citing the Wildlife Protection Act.
- Alwar district (Rajasthan): inhabitants of five villages declared 1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, with their own rules banning hunting and protecting wildlife from outsiders.
- Chipko movement (Himalayas): communities not only successfully resisted deforestation in several areas but also showed that community afforestation with indigenous species can be hugely successful.
- Beej Bachao Andolan (Tehri) and Navdanya: farmers’ and citizens’ groups showed that good levels of diversified crop production are possible without synthetic chemicals and are economically viable.
- Joint Forest Management (JFM): involves local communities in managing and restoring degraded forests. It has existed formally since 1988, when Odisha passed the first resolution for JFM. Local (village) institutions undertake protection of degraded forest land managed by the forest department; in return members get intermediary benefits like non-timber forest produce and a share in the timber harvested.
10. Sacred groves — nature worship as conservation
Nature worship is an age-old tribal belief that all creations of nature must be protected. Such beliefs have preserved many virgin forests in pristine form, called Sacred Groves (the forests of God and Goddesses). These patches are left untouched and any interference is banned.
- The Mundas and Santhal of the Chota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba) trees.
- Tribals of Odisha and Bihar worship the tamarind (Tamarindus indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) during weddings.
- Peepal and banyan trees are considered sacred by many.
- The Bishnois of Rajasthan protect blackbuck (chinkara), nilgai and peacocks as part of the community — nobody harms them.
- Troops of macaques and langurs around many temples are fed and treated as part of temple devotees.
The clear lesson from both destruction and reconstruction is that local communities must be involved in natural resource management. Only economic and developmental activities that are people-centric, environment-friendly and economically rewarding should be accepted.
11. NCERT Exercises — fully answered
Q1 (MCQ). Which of the following conservation strategies do NOT directly involve community participation?
(a) Joint forest management (b) Beej Bachao Andolan (c) Chipko Movement (d) Demarcation of Wildlife sanctuaries.
Answer: (d) Demarcation of Wildlife sanctuaries — this is a government act; the other three are community-driven.
Q2. Match the following.
- Reserved forests → Forests regarded as most valuable as far as the conservation of forest and wildlife resources is concerned.
- Protected forests → Forest lands are protected from any further depletion.
- Unclassed forests → Other forests and wastelands belonging to both government and private individuals and communities.
Q3 (i). What is biodiversity? Why is biodiversity important for human lives? (~30 words)
Biodiversity is the immense variety of all living organisms — flora and fauna — linked through a network of interdependencies. It is important because it sustains our life-support systems (clean air, water, soil) and provides food, medicines and genetic resources.
Q3 (ii). How have human activities affected the depletion of flora and fauna? Explain. (~30 words)
Human activities such as agricultural expansion, mining, large dams, shifting cultivation, colonial commercial forestry, overgrazing and hunting/poaching have destroyed habitats and wiped out species (e.g. the cheetah), causing rapid depletion of flora and fauna.
Q4 (i). Describe how communities have conserved and protected forests and wildlife in India. (~120 words)
In India, conservation has deep community roots. In the Sariska Tiger Reserve (Rajasthan) villagers fought mining using the Wildlife Protection Act. In Alwar, five villages declared 1,200 hectares as the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’ with their own rules against hunting. The Chipko movement in the Himalayas resisted deforestation and promoted community afforestation with indigenous species. Groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan and Navdanya proved chemical-free diversified farming is viable. Sacred groves — protected by tribal nature worship — preserve virgin forests, and the Bishnois protect blackbuck and peacocks. Under Joint Forest Management (JFM), formal since 1988 (first in Odisha), village institutions protect degraded forests and in return receive non-timber produce and a share of timber. These show local participation is essential to conservation.
Q4 (ii). Write a note on good practices towards conserving forest and wildlife. (~120 words)
Good practices combine legal and community effort. The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 banned hunting, protected habitats and created national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. Project Tiger (1973) and projects for the rhino, lion, elephant, crocodiles and others save endangered species and whole habitats. Conservation now targets entire biodiversity, including insects and plants. At the community level, the Chipko movement, Beej Bachao Andolan, Navdanya and sacred groves protect forests and species through people’s participation. Joint Forest Management lets villages restore degraded forests for shared benefits. Reducing overgrazing, controlling shifting cultivation, planting indigenous species, and ensuring development is people-centric and environment-friendly are all good practices that secure both ecology and the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities.
12. Common confusions
- Flora vs Fauna — flora = plants, fauna = animals. (Tip: ‘fLora’ → ‘pLants’.)
- Endangered vs Extinct — endangered = in danger of disappearing (still alive); extinct = already gone (e.g. Asiatic cheetah).
- Rare vs Endemic — rare = very few in number; endemic = found in only one particular area.
- Reserved vs Protected forests — reserved = most valuable, > half of forest; protected = protected from further depletion, ~one-third.
- Project Tiger year — launched 1973; the Wildlife (Protection) Act was 1972. Don’t swap them.
- Chipko (forests/trees) vs Beej Bachao (seeds/crops) — different focus; both community movements.
13. Quick revision checklist
- India has ~8% of world’s species; forests are primary producers.
- IUCN: Normal, Endangered, Vulnerable, Rare, Endemic, Extinct.
- Causes of depletion: colonial forestry, farmland expansion (26,200 sq km, 1951–80), mining, dams, shifting cultivation, grazing, hunting.
- Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972; Project Tiger 1973 (1,827 tigers in 1973).
- Forest types: Reserved (>half), Protected (~1/3), Unclassed.
- Community: Chipko, Beej Bachao Andolan, Navdanya, Bhairodev Sonchuri (Alwar), Sariska, Bishnois, sacred groves, JFM (1988, Odisha first).
- MP = largest permanent forests (75%); NE states = mostly unclassed.
- Indian rhino
- Asiatic cheetah
- Blue sheep
- Asiatic elephant
- 1970
- 1972
- 1973
- 1988
- 1972
- 1973
- 1980
- 1991
- Protected forests
- Unclassed forests
- Reserved forests
- Sacred groves
- Animal life
- Plant life
- Soil types
- Water bodies
- Rare species
- Endemic species
- Vulnerable species
- Normal species
- Tehri
- Alwar (Rajasthan)
- Sariska
- Silent Valley
- Madhya Pradesh
- Rajasthan
- Odisha
- Kerala
- Black buck
- Asiatic elephant
- Pink-headed duck
- Cattle
- Kerala
- Assam
- Madhya Pradesh
- Punjab
- Mahua
- Himalayan Yew
- Kadamba
- Tamarind
- Tigers
- Blackbuck, nilgai and peacocks
- Gharials
- Snow leopards
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