Cities and States

1. A Time of New Beginnings

Around 2,500 years ago (about the 6th century BCE), India saw great changes. New cities grew up, new states appeared, new ideas about religion and society spread, and trade and the use of money increased. Because cities had first appeared much earlier during the Harappan (Indus Valley) civilisation, historians call this fresh growth of towns the ‘second urbanisation’ of India.

This was an exciting period of new beginnings. People were settling down in larger numbers along the fertile river plains, forming bigger and stronger communities. Out of these communities grew powerful states that would shape the history of India for centuries to come.

2. From Janapada to Mahajanapada

As people settled in particular regions and cleared land for farming, the territory where a group or tribe (jana) lived came to be called a janapada. The word janapada literally means ‘the land where the people (jana) set their foot (pada)’ — in other words, the land where a people settled down.

Over time, some janapadas grew larger and more powerful than others. They expanded their territory, built capital cities, raised armies and collected taxes. These bigger and stronger janapadas came to be called mahajanapadas — the prefix maha means ‘great’, so a mahajanapada is a ‘great janapada’ or great realm.

Most mahajanapadas grew up in the fertile plains of the Ganga and its tributaries, where farming produced plenty of food. Each mahajanapada usually had a capital city that was often fortified — surrounded by high walls of mud, brick or stone for protection.

3. Why New Cities and States Grew

Several developments worked together to make this second urbanisation possible:

• Use of iron tools: The growing use of iron was very important. Iron axes helped clear the thick forests of the Ganga plains, and iron ploughshares helped farmers turn the heavy, fertile soil. This allowed much more land to be brought under cultivation.
• Surplus production: Better tools, fertile land and the planting of paddy (rice) by transplanting saplings increased the harvest. Farmers now produced more food than they needed — a surplus. This surplus could feed people who did not farm, such as traders, craftspersons, soldiers and rulers, allowing cities to grow.
• Growth of crafts and trade: In the new towns, many people worked as weavers, potters, ironsmiths, carpenters and other craftspersons. Goods were carried from place to place, and busy trade grew up along rivers and roads.
• Use of coins: To make trade easier, people began to use coins made of metal (especially the early punch-marked coins of silver and copper). Money made buying and selling much simpler than the old system of exchanging goods for goods (barter).

4. Two Kinds of States — Monarchies and Republics

The mahajanapadas were governed in two different ways. Understanding the difference is important.

(a) Monarchies (Kingdoms)

In a monarchy, power was in the hands of a single ruler — the king (raja). The position of king usually passed from father to son (hereditary rule). The king made the laws, led the army and collected taxes, helped by officials and ministers. Kosala, Magadha and Avanti were powerful monarchies.

(b) Ganas or Sanghas (Republics)

In a gana or sangha, power was not held by one person but was shared by a group of people, often called rajas. These rajas met together in an assembly to take decisions by discussion and debate. This was an early form of government somewhat like a republic. The Vajji sangha, with its capital at Vaishali, was the most famous of these. The Buddha and Mahavira belonged to such gana-sangha societies.

5. Taxes, Armies and Administration

Running a large state needed money and people. Earlier, rulers had depended on gifts brought by their people. Now, the rulers of the mahajanapadas began to collect regular taxes from their subjects to pay for armies, forts and officials.

The most important tax was on crops, because most people were farmers:

• Bhaga: the most important tax, usually one-sixth of the produce of the land, paid by farmers. The word bhaga means ‘a share’.
• Taxes on craftspersons — sometimes paid as labour, for example working a day each month for the king.
• Taxes on traders — on goods bought and sold.
• Taxes on herders and hunters/forest people — paid in animals, animal produce, or forest goods.

With the money from taxes, kings maintained standing armies — soldiers who were paid and kept ready all year — and built strong forts around their capital cities. They also appointed officials to collect taxes, keep order and run the administration. These steps made the mahajanapadas powerful and well organised.

6. The Rise of Magadha

Among all the sixteen mahajanapadas, Magadha became the most powerful over about two hundred years. It eventually grew into a great empire. Several reasons explain its rise:

• Fertile land: Magadha lay in the rich plains of the Ganga, which produced large harvests and supported a big population.
• Iron mines: The region had rich deposits of iron ore, used to make strong tools and weapons.
• Rivers for transport: The Ganga and other rivers provided cheap and easy transport for goods, soldiers and trade.
• Forests with elephants: The forests of Magadha provided war elephants, which were a great advantage in battle.
• Strong rulers: Ambitious kings such as Bimbisara and Ajatashatru expanded Magadha by war and clever policy.

The early capital of Magadha was Rajagriha (Rajgir), a city protected by hills, and later it shifted to Pataliputra (modern Patna), which lay where several rivers met and was easy to defend and trade from. The rise of Magadha shows how geography (fertile soil, iron, rivers, elephants) combined with strong leadership to build a powerful state. In later centuries, this same Magadha became the heart of the great Mauryan Empire.

7. Life in the New Cities

The cities of this period were lively centres of activity. They were often fortified for protection and laid out with houses, markets, workshops and roads. Many people lived in them: kings and officials, traders who carried goods near and far, skilled craftspersons such as weavers, potters and ironsmiths, and ordinary workers.

Trade brought wealth, and groups of traders and craftspersons sometimes formed associations called shrenis (guilds) to set rules and help one another. Goods, ideas and people moved along the rivers and roads connecting the cities. It was also a time of great new ideas — teachers like the Buddha and Mahavira taught in and around these very cities, and their messages spread quickly along the busy trade routes. Thus the rise of cities and states was not only a political change but also a turning point in India's social, economic and intellectual life.