The Rise of Empires

1. What is an Empire?

A kingdom is ruled by a king (raja) and is usually small, covering one region with people who often share a common language and culture. An empire is much larger. An emperor (called samrat or chakravartin in ancient India) rules over many kingdoms, regions and different groups of people, bringing them under one central power.

Building and holding an empire is difficult. To rule distant lands, an emperor needs: (1) a strong army to conquer territories and put down revolts; (2) a large group of officials to collect taxes and carry out orders; (3) a steady supply of revenue (taxes from farmers, traders and craftspeople) to pay the army and officials; and (4) good roads and communication so that the central government can reach faraway provinces. The first empire to combine all of these on a grand scale in India was the Mauryan Empire.

2. The Rise of the Mauryas — Chandragupta and Chanakya

Before the Mauryas, the most powerful kingdom in north India was Magadha (in present-day Bihar), with its early capital at Rajagriha and later at Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha grew strong because of fertile land, iron mines, the river Ganga for trade and transport, and elephants from the forests for its army.

Around 321 BCE, a young man named Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the ruling Nanda dynasty of Magadha and founded the Mauryan Empire. He was guided by a brilliant teacher and minister, Chanakya (also called Kautilya or Vishnugupta), who is believed to have written the Arthashastra — a famous treatise on statecraft, economy and administration.

Chandragupta extended the empire across the north and into the north-west, even challenging the generals of Alexander the Great. According to tradition, in his later years he gave up the throne, became a Jain monk and travelled south to Shravanabelagola (Karnataka). He was succeeded by his son Bindusara, who further expanded the empire into the Deccan. Bindusara was followed by his son Ashoka, the greatest of the Mauryan rulers.

3. How the Mauryan Empire was Governed

The Mauryan Empire was so vast that it could not be ruled in the same way everywhere. The emperor controlled the area around the capital Pataliputra directly, while distant regions were governed through provinces.

Provinces and capitals

The empire was divided into provinces, each looked after by a governor — often a prince of the royal family. Important provincial centres included Taxila (north-west), Ujjain (west), Tosali (in Kalinga, east) and Suvarnagiri (south). Royal princes were sent as governors to keep these regions loyal.

Army and spies

The Mauryas maintained a very large standing army of foot soldiers, cavalry, chariots and war elephants. The emperor also used a network of spies who reported on officials and on the mood of the people, helping the ruler keep control over the huge empire.

Revenue and officials

The main source of income was the tax on agriculture — usually a share of the crop. Taxes were also collected from traders, craftspeople and herders. A large group of officials managed the collection of taxes, the building of roads and irrigation works, and the keeping of records.

According to Megasthenes, Pataliputra was a magnificent city surrounded by a wooden wall with many gates and watch-towers, situated where the rivers met. Special committees managed the city — looking after foreigners, trade, the collection of taxes, the registration of births and deaths, and the manufacture of goods. This shows how organised and detailed Mauryan administration was.

4. Ashoka — The Emperor Who Gave Up War

Ashoka is one of the most remarkable rulers in world history. He inherited a large empire and at first followed the usual path of expanding it through conquest. The turning point of his life was the Kalinga War.

The Kalinga War (c. 261 BCE)

Kalinga (present-day Odisha) was a prosperous region on the eastern coast that had not yet been brought under Mauryan rule. Ashoka attacked and conquered it after a terrible war. In his own words, recorded in one of his edicts, the war caused enormous suffering: about one lakh (100,000) people were killed, many more died of disease and hunger, and lakhs were taken away as captives. The sight of this destruction filled Ashoka with deep sorrow and regret.

The change of heart

After Kalinga, Ashoka decided that he would no longer win lands through violence. Instead he would win the hearts of people through Dhamma — a path of moral and ethical living. He is the only king in history known to have publicly expressed remorse for a war he had won and to have given up further conquest because of it.

5. Ashoka’s Dhamma

Dhamma (the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Dharma) was not a new religion. It was a set of principles for living a good, peaceful and caring life that people of all faiths could follow. Ashoka was influenced by Buddhist teachings, but his Dhamma was broad and meant for everyone in his empire.

The main teachings of Dhamma included:

• Respect for elders — obedience to parents and care for teachers and the aged.
• Kindness to all living beings — including animals; Ashoka reduced animal sacrifice and the killing of animals for food.
• Generosity towards servants, the poor, monks and the needy.
• Tolerance and respect for all religions and beliefs — honouring the faiths of others as one’s own.
• Truthfulness, non-violence and good conduct in everyday life.

How Ashoka spread Dhamma

To spread these ideas, Ashoka took several practical steps:

• He appointed special officers called Dhamma Mahamatras who travelled across the empire teaching Dhamma and settling disputes.
• He got his messages carved on rocks and pillars (the edicts) so people could read them in their own regions and languages.
• He built roads, rest-houses, wells and hospitals for people and animals, and planted shady trees along the roads.
• He sent messengers and his own family members (such as his son and daughter, Mahendra and Sanghamitra) to spread the message of peace and Buddhism to far-off lands like Sri Lanka.

6. Ashoka’s Edicts and the Sources for the Empire

The most important sources for the Mauryan Empire are Ashoka’s edicts — messages he had inscribed on rock surfaces and on tall stone pillars across the empire. These are the earliest royal inscriptions in India that can be read.

Languages and scripts

Most edicts were written in the Prakrit language using the Brahmi script. In the north-west, some were written in other scripts (Kharosthi) and even in Greek and Aramaic, so that local people could read them. Ashoka often called himself Devanampiya Piyadasi — “Beloved of the Gods, He Who Looks on with Kindness.”

Besides the edicts, the other key sources are the Arthashastra of Chanakya (on how the state was run) and the Indica of Megasthenes (a foreign visitor’s description of Pataliputra and the court). Together these tell us about Mauryan government, society, the army and Ashoka’s ideas.

7. Art, Symbols and the Legacy of the Mauryas

The Mauryan period produced some of the finest early art in India, especially the polished stone pillars set up by Ashoka. The most famous is the Lion Capital from Sarnath (near Varanasi), where four lions stand back to back on a circular base decorated with animals and wheels.

The decline of the Mauryan Empire began after Ashoka’s death around 232 BCE. The empire was too large to be held together by weaker successors, governors became independent, and invasions from the north-west weakened the centre. Within about fifty years, the great empire broke up into smaller kingdoms.

Yet the legacy of the Mauryas, and of Ashoka in particular, lives on. Ashoka showed that a ruler could be powerful and yet compassionate, that an empire could be held together by ideas of tolerance and welfare rather than only by force. For this reason he is remembered as Ashoka the Great, and his symbols still stand at the very heart of modern India.

8. Key Terms at a Glance

• Empire: a large state where one ruler controls many kingdoms and peoples.
• Samrat / Chakravartin: the title of a supreme emperor.
• Arthashastra: Chanakya’s treatise on statecraft and administration.
• Megasthenes / Indica: Greek ambassador and his account of Mauryan India.
• Dhamma: Ashoka’s code of moral conduct for all people.
• Dhamma Mahamatras: officers appointed to spread Dhamma.
• Edicts: Ashoka’s messages carved on rocks and pillars.
• Brahmi / Prakrit: the script and language of most edicts.
• Devanampiya Piyadasi: Ashoka’s title — “Beloved of the Gods.”
• Lion Capital of Sarnath: India’s National Emblem.

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